Federal/Unitary: Federal Presidential RepublicSubunits: The United Mexican States are a federation of thirty-one free and sovereign states which form a Union that exercises jurisdiction over the Federal District and other territories. Each state has its own constitution and congress, as well as a judiciary, and its citizens elect by direct voting, a governor (gobernador) for a six-year term, as well as representatives (diputados locales) to their respective state congresses, for three-year terms.
Presidential, Parliamentary, or Mixed: Presidential
The current President is Felipe Calderon.
Head of State/ Head of Government: The President, who is the head of state and government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints, with Senate approval, the Cabinet and other officers. The President is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the authority of vetoing bills. The President of Mexico, the governors of Mexico and the members of the Chambers of Senators and Deputies are elected by popular vote of the citizens of Mexico. The judges are appointed by the Executive branch. Presidential elections have been held every six years since 1934. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. A simple plurality of all the votes cast in the country decides who becomes president.
Name of Legislative Branch: The legislative branch of government is the law making branch, which is charged with the review and determination of when and where laws are necessary. This branch receives assistance from the Executive branch by its proposal of laws and at times by its rejection of laws passed by the legislative branch.
The legislative body is composed of a chamber of deputies (similar to that of the house of representatives in the US) and a chamber of senators (similar to that of the senate in the US). The proposals of law must pass both chambers before being brought to the President for his ratification.
Name of Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court of Justice, comprised by eleven judges appointed by the President with Senate approval, who interpret laws and judge cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.
Bureaucracy/Cabinet: It consists of eighteen Secretaries of State, the head of the federal executive legal office and the Attornet General. In addition to the legal Executive Cabinet (Gabinete Legal) there are other Cabinet-level administration offices that report directly to the President of the Republic(Gabinete Ampliado). Officials from the legal and extended Cabinet (Gabinete Legal y Ampliado) are subordinate to the President. The Executive Cabinet members are appointed by the President. Cabinet Secretaries are often selected from past and current governors, senators, and other political office holders. Private citizens such as businessmen or former military officials are also common Cabinet choices.
Political Recruitment: All elected executive officials are elected by plurality(first-past-the-post). Seats to the legislature are elected by plurality and proportional representation at the federal and state level. The Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Union is conformed by 300 deputies elected by plurality and 200 deputies by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country is divided into 5 electoral constituencies or circumscriptions. The Senate is conformed by a total of 128 senators: 64 senators, two per state and the Federal District elected by plurality in pairs; 32 senators assigned to the first minority or first-runner up (one per state and the Federal District), and 32 elected by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country conforms a single electoral constituency.
Legitimacy: The Mexican government, though often referred to as "semidemocratic," has historically been put into power by fair, open, and competitive elections. The constitution is not a sham document as it was in the Soviet Union, but works as an active and strict source of rational-legal legitimacy.
Features of Constitution: The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1917 is Mexico's current constitution. Unique features of the constitution include: Article 4, which holds all people equal but places the "development of the family" under the responsibility of the woman; Article 22, which prohibits cruel and unusual punishment, including the death penalty; and Article 83, which outlines the President's six-year term but stipulates that "a citizen who has held the office of President of the Republic...can in no case and for no reason again hold that office."
Historical Evolution of Political Traditions:
- Constitution of 1917: After a long and tedious revolution against the dictatorship of Huerta, chief of the northern coalition Carranza invited all revolutionary leaders to a military conference at Aguascalientes to determine the future of Mexico. Unable to agree, four of the leaders established dissident governments, sending the country into another period of civil war and anarchy. Carranza eventually won the war, and his government was officially recognized by the United States. To consolidate his power and institutionalize the Revolution, he called for a meeting at Queretaro, where constitutionalists drew up a new supreme law for Mexico. The Congress of Queretaro met for the first time on December 1, 1916, when the constitutional draft was presented. It was similar in many ways to the Constitution of 1857, but gave extensive powers to the executive and gave additional rights to the Mexican people. The Constitution of 1917 was an expression of popular will that guaranteed civil liberties, no presidential succession, and protection from foreign and domestic exploitation.
- The Presidency of Lazaro Cardenas: The populist Indian leader and minister of war was elected in 1934, and would use his term to produce concrete results in Mexico's economic sector. He nationalized the oil industry, placing the refineries under the control of a single firm, PEMEX, which helped make rapid industrialization and economic growth possible. The nationalizations did cost the government considerable support from the United States and Great Britain, among other nations. As a result of the numerous problems throughout his term, Cardenas selected a moderate Catholic minister of war, Manuel Avila Camacho, to succeed him in place of another reformer. Cardenas's withdrawal from office and from politics altogether after the conclusion of his term set the precedent for all subsequent Mexican presidents. His retirement was viewed as the end of the revolutionary period in Mexican history.
- Mexico Joins NAFTA: After a period of extensive economic deficit and difficulty in Mexico, the U.S. felt that a free-trade accord would be the next logical step in opening up the economy and continuing the debt reduction and liberalization. On June 11, 1990, the two governments agreed to negotiate a "comprehensive free-trade agreement" that would eliminate tariff barriers, among others, to the free flow of goods, services, and capital between the two nations and Canada. The agreement fit perfectly into then-president Salinas's vision of a modernizing Mexico, and what would eventually become NAFTA was approved by the legislature to take effect on January 1, 1994. Some argue that NAFTA has been good for Mexico, as the country has witnessed a decline in poverty rates and a real increase in income across the board, but others are wary because of the negative effect the cheap food imports from the U.S. has on Mexican farmers.
Key Political Leaders:
- Ernesto Zedillo: An economist first, he served as the President of Mexico from 1994 to 2000, the last of the uninterrupted seventy-year line of Mexican presidents from the PRI. Almost as soon as he took office, Zedillo was greeted by a significant financial crisis, known as the December Mistake, that required foreign loans (including a $50 billion one from the U.S. to rescue the banking system); he also faced numerous scandals and, soon enough, the plummeting popularity of both his party and his government. Though his term is most remembered for the crises that accompanied it, Zedillo did make one lasting reform. He created Progresa, a poverty-fighting program based on subsidizing the poorest families provided their children go to school.
- Vincente Fox: Fox, a member of the opposition National Action Party, served as the President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006. He was one of the few Mexican presidents to avoid a major financial crisis during his term, though the economy did grow at its slowest rate in history (this was blamed partially on the slowdown of the U.S. economy). One of Fox's most interesting moments occurred when he acknowledged and promised to respect the separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches in Mexico, though this relationship soon became and continued to remain strained. Another notable aspect of Fox's term was the shift from the Estrada Doctrine to the "Castenada Doctrine," which called for an openness and acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs.
- Felipe Calderon: Calderon, another member of the National Action Party, is the current President of Mexico (his term will end in 2012). As a practicing Roman Catholic, Calderon is against abortion, euthanasia, and gay marriage. He is proposing more liberal economic policies, including balanced fiscal policies, flat taxes, and free trade. Calderon is known for his stance on political struggle, noting that the challenge is not between the right and left but between "the past and the future." His "future" would represent privatization, liberalization, market control of the economy, and political freedom. The current president holds onto strong approval ratings and received an almost 95% "confidence" level from the Mexican public.
Ethnic Cleavages: The Mexican population is remarkably diverse as a result of the Spanish conquistador influence throughout the sixteenth century. Marriages or sexual relations between Spanish men and Indian women resulted in the mestizo group of Mexicans, the largest group today. There is also a black influence in the country stemming from slaves brought to Mexico; the state of Veracruz along the Gulf Coast is often seen as more Caribbean than Mexican. Despite the mixture of ethnicities in the country, Mexico is notably less sensitive to or less prejudiced about race than is the United States; however, Indians are still viewed as the most marginalized group of Mexican society, often perceived as being "lazy," among other things. Women, though treated slightly differently than men in the "macho" Latino tradition, are viewed as equal partners under the law and in the development of family life.
Political Parties:
- Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI): Though officially part of Socialist International, the PRI has policies that often reflect those of a center-right party. It is sometimes described as a "state party" because of its non-competitive history and its inextricable connection to the Mexican state for most of the 20th century. Its history has aided in the development of the PRI's reputation as an inherently corrupt party, something that spawned the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution. As a result, the party relied less and less on its actual platform than it does methods of ruling. It emphasized personal relationships between members of the lower class and party and government officials, distributed political patronage to members of organized labor, and used electoral fraud, bribery, and repression whenever necessary to maintain control over any form of opposition.
- National Action Party (PAN): PAN is a conservative, Christian Democratic party, though it stresses the adoption of such policies as correspond to the problems faced by the nation at a given moment instead of a fundamental adherence to left or right politics. It currently advocates free enterprise, privatization, smaller government, and liberal reforms as well as opposition to abortion and other Christian hot-button issues.
- Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD): The PRD is the second major socialist party in Mexico. It promotes center-left democratic socialism, social democracy, and social liberalism. The party is currently committed to greater state control of the economy and the renegotiation of several potions of NAFTA with the United States and Canada.
Role of Political Elites: In recent years, political theorists have begun to refer to the three major political parties in Mexico as the country's "elites." When the election of 2000 witnessed the inauguration of a member of an opposition party, citizens rejoiced in their newfound self-determination and eagerly awaited the changes to come. What they didn't realize at the time was that there were only modest differences between the three major political parties, resulting in what cynics call the "stagnant revolution" - all things change to remain the same and power is again controlled by the few.
Citizens: The poor are adapting their political behavior to the massive transformations of the state's role in society in the wake of economic and political reforms begun in the 1990s. At the present moment, Mexican citizens are waiting for something to be put in state to secure their protection. With the number of drug wars and cartels, the number of those being kidnapped, extorted, or killed is increasing. Current President Calderon is not doing much to react to the present situation, according to a recent TIME article.
Economic System: The economy of Mexico 10th to 12th largest in the world. Since the 194 crisis, administrations have improved the country's macroeconomic fundamentals. Mexico was not significantly influenced by the recent 2002 South American crisis, and has maintained positive, although low, rates of growth after a brief period of stagnation in 2001. In spite of its unprecedented macroeconomic stability, which has reduced inflation and interest rates to record lows and has increased per capita income, enormous gaps remain between the urban and the rural population, the northern and southern states, and the rich and the poor. Some of the government's challenges include the upgrade of infrastructure, the modernization of the tax system and labor laws, and the reduction of income inequality. The economy contains a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, both of which are increasingly dominated by the private sector. Recent administrations have expanded competition in ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports, with the aim of upgrading infrastructure. As an export-oriented economy, more than 90% of Mexican trade is underfree trade agreements (FTAs) with more than 40 countries, including the European Union, Japan, Israel, and much of Central and South America. Recently, the Congress of the Union approved important tax, pension and judicial reforms, and reform to the oil industry is currently being debated.
Interest Group Systems:
- The trades unions
Trades unions have traditionally been closely linked to the PRI. They've also historically been docile. But a number of important unions are demonstrating greater independence from the government. This is significant, as it may threaten the pactos (pacts) agreed each year between unions, business and government that are used to control wages and prices. If organized labor continues to believe it will always be asked to shoulder the burden of economic adjustment, indiscipline within the union movement could rise. - The business community
Politics and big business are close in Mexico. Former president Carlos Salinas mended a strained relationship with his privatization program between 1988-94. Many private interests bought such firms in `sweetheart deals' from the government--and in return, underwrote the PRI's costs. Indeed, several top businessmen were embarrassed in 1987 when it emerged that, at an exclusive dinner, they had pledged US$ 25m each to the PRI. Relations between the business community and the former ruling party are have already loosened; for this year's election, some business leaders appeared to be sitting on the fence. - The church
While many Mexicans may not be up to date on their catechism, some 85% are Catholic. There is a small but growing evangelist presence. Yet religion for a long time was excluded from public life, to the extent that the separation between church and state appeared more like a divorce and religious groups have not played a significant role in politics. Until 1992, the constitution banned religious parties and disenfranchised the clergy. In 1992 the constitution was amended to recognise the Roman Catholic Church officially. The church is now playing a bigger --though sometimes controversial-- part in Mexican life. Some churchmen have openly criticized the government's free-market policies and corruption. One bishop in Chiapas has been accused of fomenting the Zapatista rebellion. - Guerrilla groups
Mexico still hosts clusters of guerrilla groups, of which three are serious players. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN, Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional) was formed in Chiapas in 1994, styling itself as the protector of indigenous rights. Led by the pipe-smoking Subcommander Marcos, the EZLN briefly fought the military to demand improved rights for the 10 million or so Indians. The other main insurgent groups are the Insurgent People's Revolutionary Army (ERPI, Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo Insurgente) and the Popular Revolutionary Army (EPR, Ejercito Popular Revolucionario). The EPR, which operates mainly in Oaxaca and Guerrero, was formed in 1996. The ERPI is an offshoot of it. The occasional uprisings are essentially localized conflicts, and lack the capacity to destabilize politics on a national basis. However, they can and do have a negative affect Mexico's international image. Therefore, Fox has given the negotiation of a peace settlement with the rebellious movement a priority. In 2001, Fox sent a constitutional initiative to Congress, which sought to increase the autonomy of indigenous groups. However, the Zapatistas have refused to accept the toned down version that was finally approved by Congress. An uneasy truce still holds, with some guerrillas holed up in jungle hideouts. The problem could flare up again, despite heavy government spending on infrastructure and social programs in rural, backward Chiapas. Moreover, the victory of Pablo Salazar, the PAN candidate, in August's 2000 gubernatorial elections in Chiapas has further reduced the risks of violent protests.
First World/ Third World: Third World
By third-world standards Mexico has relatively little "outside-the-system" protest and little of the racial, linguistic, and ethnic strife that is now so common in the third world. But it is not as poor as most third world countries. Some Mexican analysts point out that their country is one of the world's fifteen leading industrial powers. Mexico's economic difficulties are compounded by its massive debts.
Public Policy: There have been four overlapping sets of policies that the Salinas and Zedillo administrations continued and added to:
- Sharp cuts in government spending: By early 199 Mexico and the IMF had reached basic agreement on a severe austerity plan. Government spending would be sharply reduced to cut the deficit by half within three years. Subsidies would be cut and the prices charged by such government agencies as CONASUPO, which provided basic foodstuffs at below-market prices, would be increased.
- Privatization: To give market forces a major role in the Mexican economy, the government decided to give up much of its economic poower by privitizing public enterprises, especially those that were a drain on public finances. According to one measure of wealth, Mexico had twenty four billionaires in 2000, more than half of whom earned their wealth in the newly privitized banking system.
- Opening up the economy: The U.S. and the other creditors also insisted that Mexico open up its economy to more foreign investment. This began as early as 1980s, but reached its peak with the 1994 implementation of NAFTA, which will remove all barriers to trade by 2010. The government also agreed to join GATT and its successor, the WTO, the body that shapes international trade policy and requires free-market policies.
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